Friday, October 24, 2014

Eternity

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.    Background
In our life, every creature has ability to produce their clan. Of a kind and organism degrade the same organism. The fact that children loo like with their parent is one of example from endowment of nature
Transfer of nature of from a generation to generation named degradation of nature of. There is also told as a result arise the new fenotife or varian in population. Genotife have the character of down hill and be queathed to its clan. influence Genotif do not always look its result. Cause very base on of its environment. Genotife also represent the sususnan gene
in individual. While expression genotife named by fenotife. Fenotife is the nature of visible from outside and represent the solidarity with the variation of that is clan own a few/little difference from parent and its blood brother. Science learning about hereditas and variation of genetica. Genetica unfold to us hit the genesis variabilitas endowed in population. Process the sexual reproduction create the new gene combination. New Genotife and of among genotife in its environment.
 At biological branch there are number of comparison of genotife and fenotife from del law and elementary of genotife of some nature of baka of at human being. Each organism own the comparison of nature of different genotife and fenotife. Device of block letters represent the dominant term while device of lower case represent the nature of resesif. Dominant term used by because this can defeat the expression of gene alelnya.Sehingga to know the number comparison of[is nature of genotife and phenotife conducted by a perception seenly distinguish the characteristic by her self and characteristic owned by friend. For proving the comparison number genotife and phenotive from Mendel Law and genotife basic of some eternity on human, so in this chance we do this experiment.
B.     Purpose
Providing comparison genotype and phenotype of the law and basic Mendelian genotyping several immortal human nature.
C.    Benefits
Student able to provide comparison genotype and pheotype of the law and basic Mendelian genotyping several immortal human nature.


















CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE
Eternity (or forever) is endless time. It is often referenced in the context of religion, in the concept of immortality, whereby death is conquered, and people may live for an unlimited amount of time (cf. Heaven). The existence of God or gods is said to endure eternally and sometimes also the natural cosmos, in respect to both past and future. Aristotle established a distinction between actual infinity and a potentially infinite count, for example, instead of saying that there are an infinity of primes, Euclid prefers instead to say that there are more prime numbers than contained in any given collection of prime numbers. According to Aristotle, a future span of time must be a potential infinity, because another element can always be added to a series that is inexhaustible: "For generally the infinite has this mode of existence: one thing is always being taken after another, and each thing that is taken is always finite, but always different" (Anonymousa,2012).
In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk and a plant breeder, published his findings on the method and the mathematics of inheritance in garden pea plants. The passing of traits to the next generation is called inheritance, or heredity. Mendel, shown in Figure 10.7, was successful in sorting out the mystery of inheritance because of the organism he chose for his study—the pea plant. Pea plants are easy to grow and many are true-breeding, meaning that they consistently produce offspring with only one form of a trait. Pea plants usually reproduce by self-fertilization. A common occurrence in many flowering plants, self-fertilization occurs when a male gamete within a flower combines with a female gamete in the same flower. Mendel also discovered that pea plants could easily be crosspollinated by hand. Mendel performed cross-pollination by transferring a male gamete from the flower of one pea plant to the female reproductive organ in a flower of another pea plant (Biggs,2008).
Figure 10.7 Gregor Mendel
Mendel noticed that certain varieties of garden pea plants produced specific forms of a trait, generation after generation. For instance, he noticed that some varieties always produced green seeds and others always produced yellow seeds. In order to understand how these traits are inherited, Mendel performed cross pollination by transferring male gametes from the flower of a true-breeding green-seed plant to the female organ of a flower from a true-breeding yellow-seed plant. To prevent selffertilization, Mendel removed the male organs from the flower of the yellow-seed plant. Mendel called the green-seed plant and the yellowseed plant the parent generation—also known as the P generation (Biggs,2008).
Mendel crossed plants that bred true for purple flowers with plants that bred true for white flowers. All of the offspring of these crosses had purple flowers, but Mendel did not know why this pattern occurred. We now understand that one gene governs purple flower color in pea plants. The allele that specifies purple (let’s call it P) is dominant over the allele that specifies white (p). Thus, a pea plant with two P alleles (PP) has purple flowers, and one with two p alleles (pp) has white flowers          (Starr, 2011).
When homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis, the gene pairs on those chromosomes separate too. Each gamete that forms carries only one of the two genes of a pair. Thus, plants homozygous for the dominant allele (PP) can only make gametes that carry the dominant allele P . Plants homozygous for the recessive allele (pp) can only make gametes that carry the recessive allele p. If these homozygous plants are crossed (PP _ pp), only one outcome is possible: A gamete carrying a P allele meets up with a gamete carrying a p allele 3 . All of the offspring of this cross have one of each allele, so their genotype is Pp. A grid called a Punnett square makes it easier to predict the genetic outcomes of crosses. Because all of the offspring of thiscross carry the dominant allele P, all have purple flowers.This pattern is so predictable that it can be used as evidence of a dominance relationship between alleles. Breeding experiments use such patterns to reveal genotype. In a testcross, an individual that has a dominant trait (but an unknown genotype) is crossed with an individual known to be homozygous recessive. The pattern of traits among the offspring of the cross can reveal whether the tested  individual is heterozygous or homozygous. For example, we may do a testcross between aFor example, we may do a testcross between a purpleflowered pea plant (which could have a genotype of either PP or Pp) and a white-flowered pea plant (pp). If all of the offspring of this cross had purple flowers, we would know that the genotype of the purple-flowered parent was PP. A monohybrid cross is a breeding experiment that checks for a dominance relationship between the alleles of a single gene. Individuals that are identically heterozygous for one gene—(Pp) for example—are bred together or self-fertilized. The frequency at which the two traits appear among the offspring of this cross may show that one of the alleles is dominant over the other. To produce identically heterozygous individuals for a monohybrid cross, we would start with two individuals that breed true for two different forms of a trait. In pea plants, purple or white flowers is one example of a trait with two distinct forms, but there are many others. Mendel investigated seven of them: stem length (tall and short), seed color (yellow and green), pod texture(smooth and wrinkled), and so on. A cross between the two true-breeding individuals yields hybrid offspring: ones that are identically heterozygous for the alleles that govern the trait. When these F1 (first generation) hybrids are crossed, the frequency at which the two traits appear in the F2 (second generation) offspring offers information about dominance relationships. F is anabbreviation for filial, which means offspring (Starr, 2011).
The set of genes that an offspring inherits from both parents, a combination of the genetic material of each, is called the organism’s genotype. The genotype is contrasted to the phenotype, which is the organism’s outward appearance and the developmental outcome of its genes. The phenotype includes an organism’s bodily structures, physiological processes, and behaviours. Although the genotype determines the broad limits of the features an organism can develop, the features that actually develop, i.e., the phenotype, depend on complex interactions between genes and their environment. The genotype remains constant throughout an organism’s lifetime; however, because the organism’s internal and external environments change continuously, so does its phenotype. In conducting genetic studies, it is crucial to discover the degree to which the observable trait is attributable to the pattern of genes in the cells and to what extent it arises from environmental influence.Because genes are integral to the explanation of hereditary observations, genetics also can be defined as the study of genes. Discoveries into the nature of genes have shown that genes are important determinants of all aspects of an organism’s makeup. For this reason, most areas of biological research now have a genetic component, and the study of genetics has a position of central importance in biology. Genetic research also has demonstrated that virtually all organisms on this planet have similar genetic systems, with genes that are built on the same chemical principle and that function according to similar mechanisms. Although species differ in the sets of genes they contain, many similar genes are found across a wide range of species. For example, a large proportion of genes in baker’s yeast are also present in humans. This similarity in genetic makeup between organisms that have such disparate phenotypes can be explained by the evolutionary relatedness of virtually all life-forms on Earth. This genetic unity has radically reshaped the understanding of the relationship between humans and all other organisms. Genetics also has had a profound impact on human affairs. Throughout history humans have created or improved many different medicines, foods, and textiles by subjecting plants, animals, and microbes to the ancient techniques of selective breeding and to the modern methods of recombinant DNA technology. In recent years medical researchers have begun to discover the role that genes play in disease. The significance of genetics only promises to become greater as the structure and function of more and more human genes are characterized (Anonymousb,2012).
Gregor Mendel's uhereditary factors~ were purely an abstract concept when he proposed their existence in 1860. At that time, no cellular structures were known that could house these imaginary units. Even after chromosomes were first observed, many biologists remained skeptical about Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment until there was sufficient evidence that these principles of heredity had a physical basis in chromosomal behavior. Today, we can show that genes-Mendel's ~factors"-are 10' cated along chromosomes. We can see the location of a particular gene by tagging chromosomes with a fluorescent dye that highlights that gene. Forexample, theyelJow dots in Figure 15.1 mark the locus of a specific gene on a homologous pair ofhuman chromosomes. (Because the chromosomes in this light micrograph have already replicated, we see two dots per chromosome, one on each sister chromatid.) In this chapter, which integrates and extends what you learned in the past two chapters, we describe the chromosomal basis for the transmissionofgenes from parents to offspring, along with some important exceptions to the standard mode of inheritance. Using improved techniques of microscopy, cytologists worked out the process of mitosis in 1875 and meiosis in the 1890s. Cytology and genetics converged when biologists began to see parallels between the behavior of chromosomes and the behavior ofMendel's proposed hereditary factors during sexual life cycles: Chromosomes and genes are both present in pairs in diploid cells; homologous chromosomes separate and alleles segregate during the process of meiosis; and fertilization restores the paired condition for both chromosomes and genes. Around 1902, Walter S. Sutton, Theodor Boved, and others independently noted these parallels, and the chromosome theory of inheritance began to take form.
According to this theory, Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) along chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment (Campbell,2008).
            The nature of an indivdual who have genotipe consisits of genes that are different for each type of gene is called heterozygous, Rr eg, Aa, Tt, AABB, and so on. Character or observable physical properties (shape, color, blood type, etc) is called phenotype. Phenotype is determined by genes and environment                         (Hamka,2012).


CHAPTER III
PRACTICUM METHOD
A.    Time and Place
Day / Date            : Friday / November 30th 2012
Time                     : at 08.10 – 09.10 wita
Place                     : Laboratory of Biology at 3rd floor of Biology
                  Departement of Science and Mathematic
Faculty, State University of Makassar
B.     Tools and Materials
1.      List phenotypes

SIGNED PHENOTYPES HUMAN NATURE ARE CONSIDERED BY ETERNITY 1 GEN 2 ALLELES WITH EACH AND PRODUCE PHENOTYPES ALLELES CLEAR
a.       Dimple chin was a dominant trait (D).
b.      Ends hang free earlobes weredominant trait (E).
c.       People put people putting the left thumb over the right thumb when the fingers interweave a dominant trait (F).
d.      People have the tip of the little finger knuckle unline inward (toward the ring finger) was a dominant trait (B).
e.       Overhanging brow hair is a dominant trait (W).
f.       Hair on fingers: the growth of hair on both side of the fingers is a dominant trait M (use the loupe to see the fine hair).
g.      Dimples is a dominant trait (P).
h.      People who can roll his tongue extends a dominant trait (L).
i.        People whobhave upper incisors slotted a dominant trait (G).
C.    Work Procedure
1.      Checked the phenotypes of any nature that is in heaven above list phenotypes yourself. When the trouble, asked for help from kind friend in your group. Recorded results in tabular form.
2.      If you had dominant phenotypes then gave the sign (-) fo the second gene.
3.      Recorded the data from your group of friends, and calculated the percentage
                                          














CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A.    Result
Table of Human Eternity Observation
1.      Personal Data
Numb
Characteristic/Eternity (phenotypes)
Your Possible Genotypes
1
There is a chin dimple (D) no (d)
d
2
Kids hanging earlobes (E) attached (e)
E
3
Left thumb on tob (F) under (f)
F
4
The knuckle bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it was dominant (B) and not was recessive (b)
b
5
Hair forehead protrudes (W) there is no hair (w)
w
6
Hair on the finger  (M) there is no hair (m)
M
7
Dimples (P) , no (p)
p
8
The tongue can be rolled lengthwise (L) can not be rolled lengthywise (l)
L
9
Incisors gaps (G) incisors no gaps (g)
g





2.      Data of Group
Characteristic
Group Member
Total
Peldi
Evhy
Ayu
Maria
Rismi
There is a chin dimple (D) no (d)
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
DD = 0
dd = 5
Kids hanging earlobes (E) attached (e)
ee
ee
EE
ee
ee
EE = 1
ee = 4
Left thumb on tob (F) under (f)
ff
ff
FF
ff
FF
FF = 2
ff = 3
The knuckle bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it was dominant (B) and not was recessive (bb)
bb
bb
bb
bb
BB
BB = 1
bb = 4
Hair forehead protrudes (W) there is no hair (w)
WW
ww
ww
ww
ww
WW= 1
ww = 4
Hair on the finger  (M) there is no hair (m)
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM = 5
mm = 0
Dimples (P) , no (p)
PP
PP
pp
PP
pp
PP = 3
pp = 2
The tongue can be rolled lengthwise (L) can not be rolled lengthywise (l)
LL
LL
LL
ll
ll
LL = 3
ll =  2
Incisors gaps (G) incisors no gaps (g)
gg
gg
gg
gg
gg
GG = 0
gg = 5




3.      Data of Class

Characteristic / group
D
d
E
E
F
f
B
b
W
w
M
m
P
p
L
l
G
g
I
1
3
1
3
2
2
2
2
0
4
4
0
0
4
4
0
1
3
II
0
5
1
4
1
4
1
4
3
2
4
1
0
5
4
1
2
3
III
0
5
1
4
2
3
1
4
1
4
5
0
3
2
3
2
0
5
IV
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
3
2
4
1
1
4
2
3
1
4
V
0
4
0
4
2
2
0
4
2
2
4
0
0
4
1
3
2
2
Sum
2
21
4
19
8
15
5
18
9
14
21
2
4
19
14
9
6
17

B.     Analysis of Data
1. Data of Group
a.       Chin Dimple
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
b.      Kids Hanging earlobes or attached
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
c.       Left Thumb on Top  
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
d.      The little finger knuckle unline inward Dominan
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive

e.       Hair at forehead protrudes
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
f.       Hair at the fingers
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
g.      Dimples
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
h.      Can rolled his/her tongue be along
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
i.        People that have incisors gaps
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
2.      Data of Class
a.       Chin Dimple
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
b.      Kids Hanging earlobes or attached
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive

c.       Left Thumb on Top  
1)      Dominant
2)    Recessive
d.      The little finger knuckle unline inward Dominant
1)Dominant
2)Recessive
e.       Hair at forehead protrudes
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
f.       Hair at the fingers
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
g.      Dimples
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive
h.      Can rolled his/her tongue be along
1)Dominant
2)Recessive
i.        People that have incisors gaps
1)      Dominant
2)      Recessive


C.    Discussion
1.      Analysis of Personal data
Based on the experiment that we do, For the Dimple of chin, I have recessive. For the Tip of the auricle of ear as be free I have dominant gene, for Thumb of left hand at up of right hand, I have dominant gene. For the  knuckle bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it I have recessivet gene. For the Hair at forehead stick out I have recessive gene. Hair at the finger (on second joints) I have dominant. For the Dimple in the check I have recessive. For the ability to rolled the tongue be along I have dominant gene. For the People that have incisor of on and be gap I have recessive gene.
2.      Analysis of Group
Based on the experiment and analysis of result of characteristic of individual in the class, the ratio about the dimple of chin was dominant gene there 0 % and for the recessive gene are 100 %. The ratio of  Tip of the auricle of ears as be free dominant was 20 % and recessive was 80 %, it means that the student in my group there are 1 student have dominant gene and 4 students was recessive gene. The ratio of Thumb of left hand at up of right hand, for dominant 40 % and for the recessive gene was 60 %. It means that there are 2 student have dominant gene and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of The knuckle bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it, dominant gene was 20 % and for recessive gene was 80 %., it means that 1  student in my group is dominant and four recessive. The ratio of Hair at forehead stick out, for the dominant gene was 20 % and for recessive gene was 80 %. It means that four members in my group have recessive gene. The ratio of hair at the finger (on second joints), for the dominant was 100 % and for the recessive gene was 0 %. It means that all member of my group have recessive. The ratio of  dimple, for the dominant was 60 % and for the recessive was 40 %. It means that there are 3 student which dominant gene and 2 students was recessive gene. The ratio of  Can rolled his/her tongue be along, for dominant was 60 % and for the recessive gene was 40 %, it means that there are 3 students which have dominant and 2 student have dominant and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of People that have incisor of on and be gap, for dominant gene was 0 % and for the recessive gene was 100 %. It means that all of the members of group have recessive gene.
3.      Analysis of Class
Based on the experiment and analysis of result of characteristic of individual in the class, the ratio about the dimple of chin was dominant gene there 8,7 % and for the recessive gene are 91,3 %, it means that the students in ICP Physics class there are 2 that have dominant gene, and 21 that have recessive gene. The ratio of  Tip of the auricle of ears as be free dominant was 17,4 % and recessive was 82,6 %, it means that the student in ICP Physics there are 4 student have dominant gene and 19 students were recessive gene. The ratio of Thumb of left hand at up of right hand, for dominant 34,8 % and for the recessive gene was 65,2 %. It means that there are 8 student have dominant gene and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of The knuckle bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it, dominant gene was 21,7 % and for recessive gene was  78,3%., it means that there are 5 students of ICP’s class which have dominant and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of hair at forehead stick out, for the dominant gene was 39,1 % and for recessive gene was 60,9 %. It means that there are 9 student that dominant gene and 16 students of the was recessive gene. The ratio of hair at the finger (on second joints), for the dominant was 91,3 % and for the recessive gene was 8,7 %. It means that there are 21 students which dominant and 2 students was recessive gene. The ratio of Dimple, for the dominant was 17,3% and for the recessive was 82,7 %. It means that there are 4 students which dominant gene and 19 students was recessive gene. The ratio of  Can rolled his/her tongue be along, for dominant was 60,8 % and for the recessive gene was 39,2 %, it means that there are 14 students which have dominant and 9 student have recessive gene. And the last, the ratio of People that have incisor of on and be gap, for dominant gene was 26 % and for the recessive gene was 74 %. It means that there are 6 students of ICP which have dominant gene and 17 student was have recessive gene. And the sum of the students in ICP class was 23 students.

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A.    Conclussion
After we did our experiment we can get conclusion that the genotype and fenotype from the Mendellian law and the basic genotype of some heredity characteristic on the human. From analysis of the data in the class, total percentage of dominant gene is around 35,23% and the recessive gene is 64,77%. It mean that the recessive more than the dominant gene.

B.     Suggestion
1.      Laboratory should prepare well the tools which will be used in experiment.
2.      In doing an experiment we must be careful when use the tools to avoid the accident which probably will happen. We must observe the object carefully and seriously so that we can find a good result.
3.      The assistant should give command so we can miss the mistake while doing the experiment.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonymousa. 2012. Eternityhttp://en.wikipedia.org. Accessed on December 3rd 2012
Anonymousb. 2012. Heredity. http:/en.wikipedia.org. Accessed on December 3rd 2012
Biggs, at. el. 2008. Biology.United States of America: Glencoe.
Campbell, at. el. 2009. Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Commings.
Hamka. 2012.  Basic Biology Guide Book. Makassar: Biology Departement Faculty of Mathematic and Science, State University of Makassar.
Starr, at. el. 2011. Biology. Canada: Cengange

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