CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Background
In our life, every creature has ability to produce
their clan. Of a kind
and organism degrade the same organism. The fact that children loo like with
their parent is one of example from endowment of nature
Transfer of nature of from a generation
to generation named degradation of nature of. There is also told as a result
arise the new fenotife or varian in population. Genotife have the character of
down hill and be queathed to its clan. influence Genotif do not always look its
result. Cause very base on of its environment. Genotife also represent the
sususnan gene
in individual. While expression genotife named by fenotife.
Fenotife is the nature of visible from outside and represent the solidarity
with the variation of that is clan own a few/little difference from parent and
its blood brother. Science learning about hereditas and variation of genetica.
Genetica unfold to us hit the genesis variabilitas endowed in population.
Process the sexual reproduction create the new gene
combination. New Genotife and of among genotife in its environment.
At biological branch there are number of
comparison of genotife and fenotife from del law and elementary of genotife of
some nature of baka of at human being. Each organism own the comparison of
nature of different genotife and fenotife. Device of block letters represent
the dominant term while device of lower case represent the nature of resesif.
Dominant term used by because this can defeat the expression of gene
alelnya.Sehingga to know the number comparison of[is nature of genotife and
phenotife conducted by a perception seenly distinguish the characteristic by
her self and characteristic owned by friend. For proving the comparison number
genotife and phenotive from Mendel Law and genotife basic of some eternity on
human, so in this chance we do this experiment.
B.
Purpose
Providing
comparison genotype and phenotype of the law and basic Mendelian genotyping
several immortal human nature.
C.
Benefits
Student
able to provide comparison genotype and pheotype of the law and basic Mendelian
genotyping several immortal human nature.
CHAPTER
II
PREVIEW OF
LITERATURE
Eternity
(or forever) is endless time.
It is often referenced in the context of religion,
in the concept of immortality, whereby death
is conquered, and people may live for an unlimited amount of time (cf. Heaven).
The existence of God
or gods is said to endure eternally and sometimes also the natural cosmos, in
respect to both past and future. Aristotle established a
distinction between actual infinity
and a potentially infinite count, for example, instead of saying that there are
an infinity of primes, Euclid
prefers instead to say that there are more prime numbers than contained in any
given collection of prime numbers. According to Aristotle, a future span of
time must be a potential infinity, because another element can always be added
to a series that is inexhaustible: "For generally the infinite has this
mode of existence: one thing is always being taken after another, and each
thing that is taken is always finite, but always different" (Anonymousa,2012).
In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk and a plant
breeder, published his findings on the method and the mathematics of
inheritance in garden pea plants. The passing of traits to the next generation
is called inheritance, or heredity. Mendel, shown in Figure 10.7, was successful in sorting out the mystery of
inheritance because of the organism he chose for his study—the pea plant. Pea
plants are easy to grow and many are true-breeding, meaning that they
consistently produce offspring with only one form of a trait. Pea plants
usually reproduce by self-fertilization. A common occurrence in many flowering
plants, self-fertilization occurs when a male gamete within a flower combines
with a female gamete in the same flower. Mendel also discovered that pea plants
could easily be crosspollinated by hand. Mendel performed cross-pollination by
transferring a male gamete from the flower of one pea plant to the female
reproductive organ in a flower of another pea plant (Biggs,2008).
Figure 10.7 Gregor Mendel
Mendel noticed that certain varieties of garden pea
plants produced specific forms of a trait, generation after generation. For
instance, he noticed that some varieties always produced green seeds and others
always produced yellow seeds. In order to understand how these traits are
inherited, Mendel performed cross pollination by transferring male gametes from
the flower of a true-breeding green-seed plant to the female organ of a flower
from a true-breeding yellow-seed plant. To prevent selffertilization, Mendel
removed the male organs from the flower of the yellow-seed plant. Mendel called
the green-seed plant and the yellowseed plant the parent generation—also known
as the P generation (Biggs,2008).
Mendel crossed plants that bred true for purple
flowers with plants that bred true for white flowers. All of the offspring of
these crosses had purple flowers, but Mendel did not know why this pattern
occurred. We now understand that one gene governs purple flower color in pea
plants. The allele that specifies purple (let’s call it P) is dominant over the
allele that specifies white (p). Thus, a pea plant with two P alleles (PP) has
purple flowers, and one with two p alleles (pp) has white flowers (Starr,
2011).
When homologous chromosomes separate
during meiosis, the gene pairs on those chromosomes separate too. Each gamete
that forms carries only one of the two genes of a pair. Thus, plants homozygous
for the dominant allele (PP) can only make gametes that carry the dominant
allele P . Plants
homozygous for the recessive allele (pp) can only make gametes that carry the
recessive allele p. If these homozygous plants are crossed (PP _ pp), only one
outcome is possible: A gamete carrying a P allele meets up with a gamete
carrying a p allele 3 . All of the offspring of this cross have one of each allele, so
their genotype is Pp. A grid called a Punnett
square makes it easier to
predict the genetic outcomes of crosses. Because all of the offspring of
thiscross carry the dominant allele P, all have purple flowers.This pattern is
so predictable that it can be used as evidence of a dominance relationship
between alleles. Breeding experiments use such patterns to reveal genotype. In
a testcross, an individual that
has a dominant trait (but an unknown genotype) is crossed with an individual
known to be homozygous recessive. The pattern of traits among the offspring of
the cross can reveal whether the tested individual
is heterozygous or homozygous. For example, we may do a testcross between aFor
example, we may do a testcross between a purpleflowered pea plant (which could
have a genotype of either PP or Pp) and a white-flowered pea plant (pp). If all
of the offspring of this cross had purple flowers, we would know that the
genotype of the purple-flowered parent was PP. A monohybrid cross is a breeding experiment that checks for a
dominance relationship between the alleles of a single gene. Individuals that
are identically heterozygous for one gene—(Pp) for example—are bred together or
self-fertilized. The frequency at which the two traits appear among the
offspring of this cross may show that one of the alleles is dominant over the
other. To produce identically heterozygous individuals for a monohybrid cross,
we would start with two individuals that breed true for two different forms of
a trait. In pea plants, purple or white flowers is one example of a trait with
two distinct forms, but there are many others. Mendel investigated seven of them:
stem length (tall and short), seed color (yellow and green), pod texture(smooth
and wrinkled), and so on. A cross between the two true-breeding individuals
yields hybrid offspring: ones that are identically heterozygous for the alleles
that govern the trait. When these F1 (first generation) hybrids are crossed,
the frequency at which the two traits appear in the F2 (second generation)
offspring offers information about dominance relationships. F is anabbreviation
for filial, which means offspring (Starr, 2011).
The set of genes that an offspring inherits from both
parents, a combination of the genetic material of each, is called the
organism’s genotype.
The genotype is contrasted to the phenotype,
which is the organism’s outward appearance and the developmental outcome of its
genes. The phenotype includes an organism’s bodily structures, physiological
processes, and behaviours. Although the genotype determines the broad limits of
the features an organism can develop, the features that actually develop, i.e.,
the phenotype, depend on complex interactions between genes and their
environment. The genotype remains constant throughout an organism’s lifetime;
however, because the organism’s internal and external environments change
continuously, so does its phenotype. In conducting genetic studies, it is
crucial to discover the degree to which the observable trait is attributable to
the pattern of genes in the cells and to what extent it arises from
environmental influence.Because genes are integral to the explanation of
hereditary observations, genetics also can be defined as the study of genes.
Discoveries into the nature of genes have shown that genes are important
determinants of all aspects of an organism’s makeup. For this reason, most
areas of biological research now have a genetic component, and the study of
genetics has a position of central importance in biology.
Genetic research also has demonstrated that virtually all organisms on this
planet have similar genetic systems, with genes that are built on the same
chemical principle and that function according to similar mechanisms. Although
species differ in the sets of genes they contain, many similar genes are found
across a wide range of species. For example, a large proportion of genes in
baker’s yeast
are also present in humans. This similarity in genetic makeup between organisms
that have such disparate phenotypes can be explained by the evolutionary
relatedness of virtually all life-forms on Earth. This genetic unity has radically
reshaped the understanding of the relationship between humans and all other
organisms. Genetics also has had a profound impact on human affairs. Throughout
history humans have created or improved many different medicines, foods, and
textiles by subjecting plants, animals, and microbes to the ancient techniques
of selective breeding and to the modern methods of recombinant
DNA technology. In recent years medical researchers have begun to
discover the role that genes play in disease. The significance of genetics only
promises to become greater as the structure and function of more and more human
genes are characterized (Anonymousb,2012).
Gregor Mendel's uhereditary factors~ were purely an
abstract concept when he proposed their existence in 1860. At that time, no
cellular structures were known that could house these imaginary units. Even
after chromosomes were first observed, many biologists remained skeptical about
Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment until there was
sufficient evidence that these principles of heredity had a physical basis in
chromosomal behavior. Today, we can show that genes-Mendel's ~factors"-are
10' cated along chromosomes. We can see the location of a particular gene by
tagging chromosomes with a fluorescent dye that highlights that gene.
Forexample, theyelJow dots in Figure 15.1 mark the locus of a specific gene on
a homologous pair ofhuman chromosomes. (Because the chromosomes in this light
micrograph have already replicated, we see two dots per chromosome, one on each
sister chromatid.) In this chapter, which integrates and extends what you
learned in the past two chapters, we describe the chromosomal basis for the
transmissionofgenes from parents to offspring, along with some important
exceptions to the standard mode of inheritance. Using improved techniques of
microscopy, cytologists worked out the process of mitosis in 1875 and meiosis
in the 1890s. Cytology and genetics converged when biologists began to see
parallels between the behavior of chromosomes and the behavior ofMendel's
proposed hereditary factors during sexual life cycles: Chromosomes and genes
are both present in pairs in diploid cells; homologous chromosomes separate and
alleles segregate during the process of meiosis; and fertilization restores the
paired condition for both chromosomes and genes. Around 1902, Walter S. Sutton,
Theodor Boved, and others independently noted these parallels, and the
chromosome theory of inheritance began to take form.
According
to this theory, Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) along
chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent
assortment (Campbell,2008).
The nature of an indivdual who have
genotipe consisits of genes that are different for each type of gene is called
heterozygous, Rr eg, Aa, Tt, AABB, and so on. Character or observable physical
properties (shape, color, blood type, etc) is called phenotype. Phenotype is
determined by genes and environment (Hamka,2012).
CHAPTER III
PRACTICUM METHOD
A.
Time
and Place
Day / Date : Friday / November 30th 2012
Time : at 08.10
– 09.10 wita
Place :
Laboratory of Biology at 3rd floor of Biology
Departement
of Science and Mathematic
Faculty,
State University of Makassar
B.
Tools
and Materials
1. List
phenotypes
SIGNED
PHENOTYPES HUMAN NATURE ARE CONSIDERED BY ETERNITY 1 GEN 2 ALLELES WITH EACH
AND PRODUCE PHENOTYPES ALLELES CLEAR
a.
Dimple chin was a dominant trait (D).
b.
Ends hang free earlobes weredominant
trait (E).
c.
People put people putting the left thumb
over the right thumb when the fingers interweave a dominant trait (F).
d.
People have the tip of the little finger
knuckle unline inward (toward the ring finger) was a dominant trait (B).
e.
Overhanging brow hair is a dominant
trait (W).
f.
Hair on fingers: the growth of hair on
both side of the fingers is a dominant trait M (use the loupe to see the fine
hair).
g.
Dimples is a dominant trait (P).
h.
People who can roll his tongue extends a
dominant trait (L).
i.
People whobhave upper incisors slotted a
dominant trait (G).
C.
Work
Procedure
1. Checked
the phenotypes of any nature that is in heaven above list phenotypes yourself.
When the trouble, asked for help from kind friend in your group. Recorded
results in tabular form.
2. If
you had dominant phenotypes then gave the sign (-) fo the second gene.
3. Recorded
the data from your group of friends, and calculated the percentage
CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A.
Result
Table of Human Eternity Observation
1. Personal
Data
|
Numb
|
Characteristic/Eternity
(phenotypes)
|
Your
Possible Genotypes
|
|
1
|
There is a chin dimple (D) no (d)
|
d
|
|
2
|
Kids hanging earlobes (E) attached (e)
|
E
|
|
3
|
Left thumb on tob (F) under (f)
|
F
|
|
4
|
The knuckle bone of the little finger
that most tip goes askew on it was dominant (B) and not was recessive (b)
|
b
|
|
5
|
Hair forehead protrudes (W) there is
no hair (w)
|
w
|
|
6
|
Hair on the finger (M) there is no hair (m)
|
M
|
|
7
|
Dimples (P) , no (p)
|
p
|
|
8
|
The tongue can be rolled lengthwise
(L) can not be rolled lengthywise (l)
|
L
|
|
9
|
Incisors
gaps (G) incisors no gaps (g)
|
g
|
2. Data
of Group
|
Characteristic
|
Group
Member
|
Total
|
||||
|
Peldi
|
Evhy
|
Ayu
|
Maria
|
Rismi
|
||
|
There is a chin
dimple (D) no (d)
|
dd
|
dd
|
dd
|
dd
|
dd
|
DD
= 0
dd
= 5
|
|
Kids hanging earlobes (E) attached (e)
|
ee
|
ee
|
EE
|
ee
|
ee
|
EE
= 1
ee
= 4
|
|
Left thumb on tob (F) under (f)
|
ff
|
ff
|
FF
|
ff
|
FF
|
FF
= 2
ff
= 3
|
|
The knuckle bone of the little finger
that most tip goes askew on it was dominant (B) and not was recessive (bb)
|
bb
|
bb
|
bb
|
bb
|
BB
|
BB
= 1
bb
= 4
|
|
Hair forehead protrudes (W) there is
no hair (w)
|
WW
|
ww
|
ww
|
ww
|
ww
|
WW=
1
ww
= 4
|
|
Hair on the finger (M) there is no hair (m)
|
MM
|
MM
|
MM
|
MM
|
MM
|
MM
= 5
mm
= 0
|
|
Dimples (P) , no (p)
|
PP
|
PP
|
pp
|
PP
|
pp
|
PP
= 3
pp
= 2
|
|
The tongue can be rolled lengthwise
(L) can not be rolled lengthywise (l)
|
LL
|
LL
|
LL
|
ll
|
ll
|
LL
= 3
ll
= 2
|
|
Incisors
gaps (G) incisors no gaps (g)
|
gg
|
gg
|
gg
|
gg
|
gg
|
GG
= 0
gg
= 5
|
3. Data
of Class
|
Characteristic
/ group
|
D
|
d
|
E
|
E
|
F
|
f
|
B
|
b
|
W
|
w
|
M
|
m
|
P
|
p
|
L
|
l
|
G
|
g
|
|
I
|
1
|
3
|
1
|
3
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
0
|
4
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
4
|
4
|
0
|
1
|
3
|
|
II
|
0
|
5
|
1
|
4
|
1
|
4
|
1
|
4
|
3
|
2
|
4
|
1
|
0
|
5
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
|
III
|
0
|
5
|
1
|
4
|
2
|
3
|
1
|
4
|
1
|
4
|
5
|
0
|
3
|
2
|
3
|
2
|
0
|
5
|
|
IV
|
1
|
4
|
1
|
4
|
1
|
4
|
1
|
4
|
3
|
2
|
4
|
1
|
1
|
4
|
2
|
3
|
1
|
4
|
|
V
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
4
|
2
|
2
|
0
|
4
|
2
|
2
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
4
|
1
|
3
|
2
|
2
|
|
Sum
|
2
|
21
|
4
|
19
|
8
|
15
|
5
|
18
|
9
|
14
|
21
|
2
|
4
|
19
|
14
|
9
|
6
|
17
|
B.
Analysis
of Data
1. Data
of Group
a. Chin
Dimple
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
b. Kids
Hanging earlobes or attached
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
c. Left
Thumb on Top
1) Dominant
2)
Recessive
d. The
little finger knuckle unline inward Dominan
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
e. Hair
at forehead protrudes
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
f. Hair
at the fingers
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
g. Dimples
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
h. Can
rolled his/her tongue be along
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
i.
People that have incisors gaps
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
2.
Data of Class
a. Chin
Dimple
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
b. Kids
Hanging earlobes or attached
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
c. Left
Thumb on Top
1) Dominant
2)
Recessive
d. The
little finger knuckle unline inward Dominant
1)Dominant
2)Recessive
e. Hair
at forehead protrudes
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
f. Hair
at the fingers
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
g. Dimples
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
h. Can
rolled his/her tongue be along
1)Dominant
2)Recessive
i.
People that have incisors gaps
1) Dominant
2) Recessive
C.
Discussion
1. Analysis
of Personal data
Based
on the experiment that we do, For the Dimple of chin, I have recessive. For the
Tip of the auricle of ear as be free I have dominant gene, for Thumb of left
hand at up of right hand, I have dominant gene. For the knuckle bone of the little finger that most
tip goes askew on it I have recessivet gene. For the Hair at forehead stick out
I have recessive gene. Hair at the finger (on second joints) I have dominant.
For the Dimple in the check I have recessive. For the ability to rolled the
tongue be along I have dominant gene. For the People that have incisor of on
and be gap I have recessive gene.
2.
Analysis of Group
Based
on the experiment and analysis of result of characteristic of individual in the
class, the ratio about the dimple of chin was dominant gene there 0 % and for
the recessive gene are 100 %. The ratio of
Tip of the auricle of ears as be free dominant was 20 % and recessive
was 80 %, it means that the student in my group there are 1 student have
dominant gene and 4 students was recessive gene. The ratio of Thumb of left
hand at up of right hand, for dominant 40 % and for the recessive gene was 60
%. It means that there are 2 student have dominant gene and the other was
recessive gene. The ratio of The knuckle bone of the little finger that most
tip goes askew on it, dominant gene was 20 % and for recessive gene was 80 %.,
it means that 1 student in my group is
dominant and four recessive. The ratio of Hair at forehead stick out, for the
dominant gene was 20 % and for recessive gene was 80 %. It means that four members
in my group have recessive gene. The ratio of hair at the finger (on second
joints), for the dominant was 100 % and for the recessive gene was 0 %. It
means that all member of my group have recessive. The ratio of dimple, for the dominant was 60 % and for the
recessive was 40 %. It means that there are 3 student which dominant gene and 2
students was recessive gene. The ratio of
Can rolled his/her tongue be along, for dominant was 60 % and for the
recessive gene was 40 %, it means that there are 3 students which have dominant
and 2 student have dominant and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of
People that have incisor of on and be gap, for dominant gene was 0 % and for
the recessive gene was 100 %. It means that all of the members of group have recessive
gene.
3.
Analysis of Class
Based
on the experiment and analysis of result of characteristic of individual in the
class, the ratio about the dimple of chin was dominant gene there 8,7 % and for
the recessive gene are 91,3 %, it means that the students in ICP Physics class
there are 2 that have dominant gene, and 21 that have recessive gene. The ratio
of Tip of the auricle of ears as be free
dominant was 17,4 % and recessive was 82,6 %, it means that the student in ICP
Physics there are 4 student have dominant gene and 19 students were recessive
gene. The ratio of Thumb of left hand at up of right hand, for dominant 34,8 %
and for the recessive gene was 65,2 %. It means that there are 8 student have
dominant gene and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of The knuckle bone of
the little finger that most tip goes askew on it, dominant gene was 21,7 % and
for recessive gene was 78,3%., it means
that there are 5 students of ICP’s class which have dominant and the other was
recessive gene. The ratio of hair at forehead stick out, for the dominant gene
was 39,1 % and for recessive gene was 60,9 %. It means that there are 9 student
that dominant gene and 16 students of the was recessive gene. The ratio of hair
at the finger (on second joints), for the dominant was 91,3 % and for the
recessive gene was 8,7 %. It means that there are 21 students which dominant
and 2 students was recessive gene. The ratio of Dimple, for the dominant was
17,3% and for the recessive was 82,7 %. It means that there are 4 students
which dominant gene and 19 students was recessive gene. The ratio of Can rolled his/her tongue be along, for
dominant was 60,8 % and for the recessive gene was 39,2 %, it means that there
are 14 students which have dominant and 9 student have recessive gene. And the
last, the ratio of People that have incisor of on and be gap, for dominant gene
was 26 % and for the recessive gene was 74 %. It means that there are 6
students of ICP which have dominant gene and 17 student was have recessive
gene. And the sum of the students in ICP class was 23 students.
CHAPTER
V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A.
Conclussion
After
we did our experiment we can get conclusion that the genotype and fenotype from
the Mendellian law and the basic genotype of some heredity characteristic on
the human. From analysis of the data in the class, total percentage of dominant
gene is around 35,23% and the recessive gene is 64,77%. It mean that the
recessive more than the dominant gene.
B.
Suggestion
1.
Laboratory should prepare well the tools
which will be used in experiment.
2. In
doing an experiment we must be careful when use the tools to avoid the accident
which probably will happen. We must observe the object carefully and seriously
so that we can find a good result.
3. The
assistant should give command so we can miss the mistake while doing the
experiment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonymousb.
2012. Heredity. http:/en.wikipedia.org. Accessed on December 3rd 2012
Biggs,
at. el. 2008. Biology.United States
of America: Glencoe.
Campbell,
at. el. 2009. Biology. San Francisco:
Benjamin Commings.
Hamka.
2012. Basic Biology Guide Book. Makassar:
Biology Departement Faculty of
Mathematic and Science, State University of Makassar.
Starr,
at. el. 2011. Biology. Canada:
Cengange
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